Exposing and criticising the shortcomings or behaviour of an individual or a society in a text, using techniques such as exaggeration, humour, ridicule and irony.
When reading, moving eyes quickly down a page, seeking specific words and phrases. Scanning is also used when a reader first finds a resource to determine whether it will answer their questions.
Recognising and separating out phonemes in a word. Students may say each sound as they tap it out. Stretching (for example, mmmaaannn) is an example of segmenting. When segmenting words, there is a pause between each phoneme (for example, /m/-/a/-/n/ is an example of segmenting).
In writing, a sentence is marked by punctuation, but in speech the boundaries between sentences are not always so clear.
There are different types of sentences:
- simple sentence – has a form of a single clause (for example, ‘David walked to the shops.’ or ‘Take a seat.’)
- compound sentence – has two or more main clauses of equal grammatical status, usually marked by a coordinating conjunction such as ‘and’, ‘but’ or ‘or’. In the following examples below, the main clauses are indicated by square brackets
- [Jill came home this morning] [but she didn't stay long].
- [Kim is an actor], [Pat is a teacher], [and Sam is an architect].
- complex sentence – has one or more subordinate clauses. In the following examples, subordinate clauses are indicated by square brackets:
- I took my umbrella [because it was raining].
- [Because I am reading Shakespeare], my time is limited.
- The man [who came to dinner] is my brother.
See phrase
A letter that is in the written form of a word but is not pronounced in the spoken form (for example, ‘t’ in the word ‘listen’ or ‘k’ in the word ‘knew’).
A simile is a figurative language device where two things that are not like are compared. Similes usually use the words ‘like’ or ‘as’ to make the comparisons (For example, The cake was as light as air.’ When the interview was finished he felt as free as a bird.)
See punctuation
Has a form of a single clause (for example, ‘David walked to the shops.’ or ‘Take a seat.’). (see ‘sentence’)
See text complexity
Skimming is reading quickly through a text in order to get the general meaning or main messages or ideas.
See text complexity
A principle or code that can be applied when attempting to spell an unfamiliar word. ‘Spelling generalisation’ is used more frequently than ‘spelling rule’ because most spelling rules have a number of exceptions. An example of a spelling generalisation is:
Words ending in ‘-f’ or ‘-fe’ form a plural using ‘ves’
calf – calves, knife – knives. However there are exceptions: chief- chiefs
See spelling generalisation
The ways in which aspects of texts (such as words, sentences, images) are arranged and how they affect meaning. Style can distinguish the work of individual authors (for example, Jennings’s stories, Lawson’s poems), as well as the work of a particular period (for example, Elizabethan drama, nineteenth-century novels). Examples of stylistic features are narrative viewpoint, structure of stanzas, juxtaposition.
A function in the structure of a clause usually filled by a noun group/phrase (for example, ‘The dog [subject] was barking’). The normal position of the subject is before the verb group/phrase, but in most kinds of interrogatives (questions) it follows the first auxiliary verb (for example, ‘Was the dog barking?’, ‘Why was the dog barking?’).
In main clauses the subject is an obligatory element, except in imperative (command) clauses (for example, ‘Be very tactful’) and in casual style (for example, ‘Want some?’).
Most personal pronouns have a different form when they are the subject of a main clause (for example, I caught the ball. She has the answer etc.), than when they are the object (for example, Max threw the ball to me; Max told me the answer) Similarly ‘Give it to Mary and me’ is correct, not ‘Give it to Mary and I.’).
In the present tense, and the past tense with the verb ‘be’, the verb agrees with the subject in person and number (for example, ‘Her son lives with her’ ‘Her sons live with her’).
Subject matter refers to the topic or theme under consideration.
See clause
Subordinating conjunctions introduce certain kinds of subordinate clauses. They include conjunctions such as ‘after’, ‘when’, ‘because’, ‘if’ and ‘that’.
Examples of different types of subordinating conjunctions:
- ‘When the meeting ended we went home.’ (time)
- ‘That was because it was raining.’ (reason)
- ‘I'll do it if you pay me.’ (condition)
- ‘I know that he is ill.’ (declarative)
- ‘I wonder whether/if she’s right?’ (interrogative)
A meaningful element added to the end of a word to change its meaning (for example, to show its tense : ‘-ed’ in ‘passed’). Common suffixes are ‘-ing’; ‘-ed’; ‘-ness’; ‘-less’; ‘-able’).
Symbolism is the use of symbols to signify ideas and qualities, by giving them symbolic meanings that are different from their literal sense. Symbolism can take different forms. Generally, it is an object, person or situation representing another, to give an entirely different meaning that is much deeper and more significant.( For example a dove is a symbol of peace. The colour green can symbolise jealousy.)
A word having nearly the same meaning as another (for example, synonyms for ‘old’ would be ‘aged’, ‘venerable’, ‘antiquated’).